SB 355 
.C7 
Copy 1 



■mi 



UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
SYLLABUS 23 

Contribution from the States Relations Service 

A. C. TRUE, Director 

In Cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry 

W. A. TAYLOR, Chief 



Washington, D. C. 



September, 1916 



ILLUSTRATED LECTURE ON 
ORCHARD MANAGEMENT 



By 

H. M. CONOLLY, Assistant in Agricultural Education, and 

E. J. GLASSON, Specialist in Horticulture and 

Forestry, States Relations Service 



CONTENTS 



Introduction . . . 
Location and Site . 
Planting the Orchard 
Soil Management . 
Prunnlng .... 
Thinning .... 



Page 
1 
1 
3 
S 
7 
8 



Page 

Rejuvenation 9 

Spraying 9 

Protection from Rodents 11 

Trapping Devices U 

Fire Blight and Borers > • 12 

Appendix • • 13 




WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT PRDOTNG OFFICE 

1916 



Monograph 






D. Of D. 
OCT 13 191$ 






U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

STATES RELATIONS SERVICE. 

A. C. TRUE, Director. 

In cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry, W. A. Taylor, Chief. 



SYLLABUS 23— ILLUSTRATED LECTURE ON 
ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. 1 

By II. M. Conollt, Assistant in Agricultural Education, and E.J. Glasson, Specialist 
in Horticulture and Forestry, States Relations Service. 



INTRODUCTION. 

This lecture treats especially of all the practices which have 
to do with the growing of the tree and its fruit. The more 
thoroughly these practices are carried out, the more successful 
the orchard will be. 

Some of the more important practices in orchard manage- 
ment tire tillage, maintenance of soil fertility, pruning, and 
spraying. If the orchard has been started right, the manage- 
ment problems are much simplified and chances for success 
well assured, but if the orchard was given a poor start and 
has been much neglected, the problems become complicated 
and success is more uncertain. 

Climatic and soil conditions vary in different sections of 
the country and even in different locations in the same section 
of country. These differences in conditions make necessary 
different methods of accomplishing the results that are desired. 
It is very essential, therefore, to determine what practices 
can best be used and adopt those which most closely suit the 
conditions under which the work is to be done. 

LOCATION AND SITE. 

The foundation of a profitable orchard is a desirable location, 
a suitable site, and proper varieties. The location of an 
orchard has to do in general, with its geographical position 

1 This syllabus has been prepared by cooperation between the Office of Horticultural and 
Pomological Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry, as regards subject matter, and 
J. M. Stedman, Farmers' Institute Specialist of the States Relations Service, as regards peda- 
gogical form. It is designed to aid farmers' institute and other extension lecturers in presenting 
this subject before popular audiences. The syllabus is illustrated with 50 lantern slides, as 
isted in the Appendix. The numbers in the margins of the pages refer to the lantern slides as 
listed in the Appendix. 



View. 



2 

view. or p] ace on the map, and in detail concerns its relation to 
shipping stations, transportation facilities, markets, economic 
conditions, in some cases the sequence of the ripening of fruits 
compared with other locations, climatic conditions, and other 
factors of less importance. 

The site has to do with the exact piece of land occupied by 
the orchard. It concerns chiefly the soil, topography, relative 
and actual elevation, and local climatic conditions with 
reference to frosts. Emphasis is placed on relative elevation 
because of its influence on the occurrence of frosts. 

Location. — Some of the features that should be carefully 
considered under location are the roads and the distances over 
which fruits and supplies must be hauled. Rough roads with 
steep grades in sections where there is no immediate prospect 
of improvement will make it almost impossible to produce 
fruit at a profit. Long hauls are expensive, and rough roads 
cause serious damage to the fruit; and where there is close 
competition with more favorable locations the profits are apt 
to be very small. 

Transportation facilities are important. When orchards are 
not within wagon or truck haul of the market, the railroad 
facilities should be carefully considered. Not only must the 
train service be adequate, but the securing of refrigerator cars 
when needed and the icing of the same at reasonable rates are 
necessary in shipping perishable fruit. 

The markets to which fruit will be shipped must be accessible 
without much delay in transit. Where transfers are numerous, 
and roundabout connections with branch lines of railroads 
must be used, delays are frequent and rates are high, thus 
considerably increasing the expenses. 

The economic conditions, such as the procuring of suitable 
labor and the facilities for the care of this labor, must be 
taken into account. 

The climate must be considered in selecting the kinds of fruit 
to grow in a locality or region, for it is usually unprofitable to 
attempt to grow fruits in any region that are not adapted to 
the conditions under which they are planted. 

Site. — Among the items to be considered under the site is 

L the soil. The soil should be deep with a porous substratum 

which will allow excess water to seep away quickly. If the 

2 soil is run down it is not in good condition for the growth of 

orchard trees. 

Land that is gently rolling is to be preferred to land that is 
either very rough and uneven or very steep. Erosion is 
apt to be very heavy on steep land, and the^expense of orchard 



3 

operations is heavy in comparison with what it is where the View - 
conditions are favorable. 

If the relative elevation, or elevation as compared with the 
surrounding country, is high, it provides for good air drainage 
and good soil drainage. Air drainage is very essential, for it 
provides conditions under which frosts are less apt to occur, 
and under which fungus diseases are more easily controlled. 
A well-drained soil is almost imperative for the proper growth 
of fruit trees; therefore, if the site for an orchard is not well 
drained or capable of being well drained at little expense, it 
is a waste of time and money to use it for orchard purposes. 

The climate of a particular site with reference to frosts should 
be considered, for it is very difficult to produce fruit profitably 
in sections subject to severe freezes or in sections where late 
spring frosts occur annually. 

PLANTING THE ORCHARD. 

Systems of planting. — Where the site consists of steep 
slopes, the orchard should be laid out with reference to the 
contour of the land. The rows should be made in such a 
way that erosion of the soil will be reduced to a minimum, 
and that tillage, spraying, and harvesting operations may be 
conducted with the greatest possible ease. 

The distance for planting is governed by the kinds of fruit 
to be grown, the habit of growth of the variety, and the 
fertility of the soil. Peaches may be planted from 18 to 22 
feet apart, pears about 24 feet apart, and apples 30 to 40 
feet apart. 

Mixed plantings, such as apples and peaches, are some- 
times profitable, but the management problems are less 
complicated when each fruit is planted by itself. Each 
variety should be planted in a separate block to facilitate 
harvesting, but a block which contains a self-sterile variety 
should be located near a block which contains a variety that 
is a good pollenizer. 

Selection of varieties. — A great measure of the success with 
an orchard depends upon the proper selection of the varieties 
of fruit to be grown. This selection of varieties requires 
considerable care, and it is always well to find out what 
varieties do best in the particular locality, and also to consult 
the best authorities in the State. The number of varieties to 
be grown will depend upon the purpose, whether for home use 
or for market, and upon the kind of fruit. Where the pur- 
pose is to have a succession of ripe fruit over a long period, 
a greater number of varieties may be used than where the 



ripe fruit is desired over a short period of time. The number of 
varieties of one kind of fruit is often influenced by the quantity 
of other kinds of fruit which ripen at the same time. In many 
sections the number of varieties grown for market is limited 
by the heavy shipping period of other regions. 

Kind of trees to plant.^-Oi\\y trees that are thrifty and well- 
grown and which have good roots and tops should be planted. 
Thrifty, well-grown trees need not be the largest trees to be 
found in the nursery, but often medium-sized trees will be as 
desirable as the larger ones. The smaller grades in many 
cases consist of trees which are weak and stunted, and often 
the root systems may be very poor. Though the small trees 
may be bought at a lower price than the medium-sized or 
large ones, they may prove costly in the end, especially if 
they lack the vitality necessary to make a good growth after 
being planted. 

Apple, plum, pear, and cherry trees are commonly planted as 
2-year-olds; that is, after they have made two seasons' growth 
in the nursery, though many growers prefer 1-year-old trees, 
especially apple and cherry. Peaches are invariably planted 
as 1-year-olds. 

Nursery trees should always be packed in such a way that 
the roots will not dry out, and upon delivery at the place 
where they are to be planted the} 7 should be unpacked imme- 
diately. Unless the trees can be planted at once, they should 
be heeled in. A place that is well drained, with a deep mellow 
soil, should be selected for heeling in the trees. A trench is 
dug of sufficient width and depth to receive the roots, and the 
trees are carefully placed in this trench. Trees that are tied 
in bundles should be separated before heeling in, and the earth 
should be worked around the roots of each tree to prevent 
drying to any serious extent. 

Preparation for planting. — Thorough preparation of the soil 
is just as important for planting an orchard as for planting 
corn or wheat. Deep plowing and thorough harrowing are 
very essential. It is a very good plan to grow some cultivated 
crop on the land the year preceding the setting of the orchard. 
This crop will not only put the land in better mechanical con- 
dition, but if a leguminous crop, it will increase the plant food in 
the soil. Preliminary to digging the holes for the trees, many 
growers plow one or two furrows as deep as practicable along 
the line where the tree row is to go. This plowing saves con- 
siderable digging when planting the trees. 

Setting the trees. — Success in planting trees is made possible 
by avoiding unnecessary exposure of the roots and by thorough 



firming of the soil about the trees. Puddling the roots is a View 
common practice where the roots are apt to be exposed during 
planting operations. 

In preparing the tree for planting all bruised or broken roots 
should be cut off, and all excessively long roots should be 
pruned back to correspond with the rest of the root system. 
The holes for the trees should be large enough to admit the roots 
without bending and crowding, and deep enough so that when 
filled the trees will be 2 or 3 inches deeper than they were in the 
nursery. The trees should be set with a slant toward the 
direction of the prevailing winds. After the trees are set they 
should be pruned back. One-year-old trees are usually cut 
back to a single stem 18 to 30 inches high, buc if the trees are 9 

very large three or four short stubs are left at the top of the 
main stem so as to insure the growth of branches at the point 
where it is desired to form the head of the tree. Two-year-old 
trees should have short stubs left which are carefully selected 
to form the scaffold limbs of the trees. 

SOIL MANAGEMENT. 

Tillage. — Tillage is beneficial to the soil in several ways. 
It improves the condition by increasing the depth and by 
fining the soil; it conserves moisture by increasing the water- 
holding capacity and by checking evaporation; it increases 
plant food by promoting nitrification and by hastening the 
decomposition of organic matter. 

There are three methods of soil management with reference 
to tillage; namely, clean tillage, clean tillage with cover crops, 
and sod mulch. Clean tillage consists in keeping the soil 
throughout the orchard in a good state of cultivation until 
midseason and then stopping all cultivation. With this 10 
method of tillage the orchard is plowed as soon as the soil is 11 
workable and then harrowed as often as necessary to preserve 12 
a dust mulch on the surface of the soil. 

Clean tillage with cover crops consists of clean tillage until 
midseason, and then seeding the orchard down with a cover 
crop like rye, clover, etc. The cover crop is plowed under the 
following spring, and tillage given as in the previous year. 

The sod-mulch system consists in seeding the orchard down 13 
to grass or clover. During the season this crop is mowed sev- 
eral times, and the material is scattered about the trees to 14 
form a mulch. In a great many orchards, where the land is so 
rough and rocky that cultivation is impracticable, weeds and 15 
other herbage are allowed to grow and this material is cut 
during the season and used as a mulch about the tree. 



6 

view. There are differences of opinion as to the best methods of 
tillage in an orchard. Some growers adhere strictly to the 
clean-tillage system, others to the clean tillage with cover crops, 
and still others to the sod mulch. We should not claim that 
any one system of tillage is best, for each has its own adapta- 
tions. Many orchards will give good results under the sod- 
mulch system for a while and then would be very much bene- 
fited if clean tillage was given for a few seasons. Conditions 
should govern the plan of tillage to follow. If the grower 
keeps in mind the benefits to be secured by tillage and under- 
stands the principles involved, he can decide on the plan 
which best suits his needs. 

Maintenance of fertility. — It is always better to maintain 
the soil in a highly fertile state than to permit it to become 
depleted to such a degree as to become unproductive. Good 
tillage and the maintenance of a good supply of humus will 
keep the soil in suitable condition for fruit growing. Where 
stable manure is plentiful, there is probably no better way of 
supplying humus than by the liberal use of it. Where manure 
is not available, cover or green-manure crops are to be advised. 

Cover crops. — There are two main groups of plants used for 
cover crops, namely, leguminous and nonleguminous. The 
first group comprises such plants as red, crimson, and bur 
clover, cowpeas, soy beans, alfalfa, vetch, peanuts, and velvet 
beans. The second group includes rye, oats, buckwheat, mil- 
let, rape, and turnips. 

Cover crops improve the soil in several ways! They improve 
the physical condition of the land by preventing the soil from 
cementing together or puddling, by holding rains and snows 
until they can soak away, and by drying out the soil in the 
spring, making possible early tillage. They catch and hold 
leaching nitrates, add humus to the soil when plowed under, 
render plant food available, and collect nitrogen if they are 
legumes. 

Where it is intended to omit tillage for a season, orchards 
are very commonly seeded down to red clover. Crimson 
clover is used quite extensively as a winter cover crop in the 
orchard, especially on the lighter soils throughout New Jersey, 
Delaware, and Maryland. It gives excellent results, particu- 
larly in seasons when there is a good supply of moisture in the 

16 soil at planting time. Vetch is very widely planted in the 
northern fruit regions, and alfalfa in the apple orchards of the 
States west of the Great Divide. Cowpeas and soy beans are 

17 very widely planted in the middle and southern latitudes, and 
velvet beans in the extreme south. 



Rye is probably the most widely planted of all the non- view - 
leguminous cover crops. It can be sown very late in the sea- 18 
son, it germinates when very little moisture is available, and 
it lives over winter, starting into growth early in the spring. 
Rye and vetch in combination have been found very satisfac- 
tory in many instances. 

Fertilizing. — Fertilizing the orchard may be accomplished 
in two ways. Fertilizing materials may be applied directly, 
in the form of commercial fertilizer or stable manure, and indi- 
rectly, by growing cover crops. A careful study of the growth 
of the trees from year to year is necessary for intelligent fer- 
tilizing. Young trees usually need considerable quantities of 
nitrogenous fertilizers in order to make wood growth, while 
bearing trees require considerable quantities of phosphate and 
potash. It is impossible to give any definite formulas for fer- 
tilizing trees without knowing all the conditions. 

Irrigation. — Much of the fruit west of the one hundredth 
meridian is grown under irrigation, but in the other regions 
little attention is given to it. Where irrigation is practiced, 
the drainage should be carefully looked after and all the phases 
of irrigation thoroughly studied. 

PRUNING. 

There are several different results to be obtained by pruning, 
namely : 

1. To keep the tree within bounds, so that the work of spray- 
ing and of picking the fruit can be done with the greatest 
facility. 

2. To remove dead or interfering branches. 

3. To open the top of the tree to admit air and sunshine, 19 
and to reduce the struggle for existence among the branches. 

4. To thin the fruit and stimulate the development of fruit 20 
buds. 

5. To make the tree stocky and increase its vigor. 21 
There are differences of opinion as to the best ways of prun- 22 

ing to secure the results desired, but most successful growers 23 
admit that regular pruning is desirable. Each grower in 
pruning his trees has in mind the securing of some definite 
objects, though he may not know just what the principles of 
pruning are. Each tree furnishes a problem in itself, but if 
the principles are understood these problems can be solved. 

After a tree is planted it is headed back to a single un- 
branched stem or a stem with several branches, depending on 
the size and age of the tree. The second season several of these 24 
stubs or new branches are selected to form the scaffold limbs 25 



8 

view. f thg tree. Care should be taken to have these three or four 
spread out well along the main stem so as to avoid bad crotches 
later. The branches selected are headed back 10 or 12 inches. 

26 The third season two or three branches are allowed to remain 
on each of these scaffold limbs, and all others cut off. The 

27 branches selected this time should be located so as to balance 
evenly and keep open the top of the tree. The fourth season 
the operation is repeated on the limbs of the preceding season's 

28 growth. In all later prunings care should be used to save 
fruit spurs and keep the bearing wood low and well distributed 

29 throughout the tree. 

In pruning, all cuts should be made close to the parent 
branch, leaving no stubs which might later decay back and 
injure the tree. All wounds of more than an inch in diameter 
should be painted. 

The correct principle seems to be to do the least cutting 

possible and } r et get the results desired. A great deal of the 

cutting done in winter may be avoided by a little judicious 

pinching back of buds during the summer. This pinching 

back prevents the growth of branches that must be removed 

later and permits better growth in the branches that are 

desired. 

THINNING. 

The purpose of thinning is to reduce the quantity of fruit 
which a tree sets to a quantity that it can mature and at the 
same time develop fruit buds for the next year's crop. An 

30 excessive crop usually means small and often poorly colored 
fruit, and the overloading frequently breaks down the limbs 
of the tree. The development of seeds is an exhaustive process 
on a tree, and the growth of seeds in small fruits is as depleting 
as in the case of large fruits; thus thinning relieves the tree of 
a severe strain. In the case of winter apples it is quite likely 
that annual bearing is encouraged by thinning, for it gives more 

31 opportunity for the development of fruit buds. Summer 
varieties of apples require several pickings, and each of these 
pickings may in a way be called a system of thinning. With 
stone fruits, especially peaches, thinning has become an estab- 
lished practice among most commercial growers. How much 
and when to thin depends on conditions. The usual time of 
thinning is just after the so-called June drop. The amount to 
thin varies with the kind of fruit and the variety. With some 
varieties it is not always profitable, and the extra drain on the 
tree by the production of seed can be overcome by fertilizing. 

32 Peaches are usually thinned to about 5 or 6 inches apart on the 
limbs. 



REJUVENATION. 

Many orchards contain trees which, owing to old age, neglect view - 
of pruning, insects, or disease, have become unprofitable. All 
of these trees which are vigorous can be renovated, and their 
usefulness prolonged a number of years. High-headed trees 
with their bearing wood at the extremities of long branches 33 
are not only difficult to spray, but the work of picking the 
fruit is troublesome and expensive. Such trees may be 
headed back and the fruiting wood brought within convenient 34 
reach. Trees like peaches may be cut back to a few short 
arms near the trunk, and the tree allowed to form an entirely 35 
new head. With apples and pears severe heading is not to be 36 
recommended. With old trees, where the head is so high that 37 
in order to materially reduce the workable height the branches 
would have to be nearly all cut away, it is questionable 
whether the renovation is profitable. 

Old trees which are vigorous and which are of varieties that 
are not desirable may be headed back and the tops grafted 
into desirable varieties. This top-working is done by budding . 
in the case of peaches and by cleft grafting in the case of other 
kinds of fruit trees. The new top is formed as low down as is 
consistent with the vigor of the tree and the size of the branches. 

In all renovation or rejuvenation of fruit trees there is more 
to be considered than just pruning and top-working. Old 
orchards have usually been neglected in regard to cultivation, 
spraying, and fertilizing, as well as pruning. After the trees 
have been deheaded and all rubbish in the orchard cleared up 
and burned, a good spraying with lime-sulphur should be 
given. This spray will kill any scale insects that may be in 
the orchard and will help to clean up the trees. Whenever 
the season permits, the land can be broken and clean culture 38 
given. If the orchard has been in sod for a number of years, 
and especially with some leguminous crop, the soil will probably 
contain a good deal of vegetable matter; but if not, then this 
material may be supplied by giving the land a good dressing 
of stable manure. An application of 300 pounds of acid phos- 
phate and 150 pounds of muriate or sulphate of potash per 
acre, scattered around under the outer extremities of the 39 
limbs and between the rows and harrowed in, will be very 
beneficial to the production of good crops of fruit. 40 

SPRAYING. 

Purpose. — The purpose of spraying is to prevent or control 
the attacks of insects and fungus diseases, which lower the 
vitality of the tree or cause serious damage to the fruit. The 41 



10 

view, practice is based upon the principle that prevention is better 
than cure. When trees are sprayed they are covered with a 
thin coating of material which is unfavorable to the growth of 
pests. Thus the spraying is an insurance against injury rather 
than a cure after the injury has occurred. 

The insects which trouble the orchardist may be grouped in 
two main classes, chewing insects and sucking insects. For 

42 the control of the first class some form of arsenic, such as 
arsenate of lead, is most generally used. The sucking insects 
can not be killed by poison, as they do not eat on the surface, 
so some preparation that will kill by coming in contact with 
their bodies is used. Lime-sulphur, kerosene emulsion, and a 
nicotin extract are very commonly used for the purpose. 

There are two classes of diseases which trouble the fruit 
grower, fungi and bacteria. The fungus diseases may be con- 
trolled by spraying with lime-sulphur or Bordeaux mixture. 

43 For the bacterial diseases no satisfactory spray mixture has 
yet been found. Bacterial diseases, such as pear blight, can 
be controlled only by cutting out and burning the affected 
parts. 

Spray mixtures. — There is no general spray mixture that can 
be applied to secure control over all orchard pests, neither is 
there a time of year when all the spraying work can be done. 
Insects and fungus diseases usually have a period in their de- 
velopment when they may be controlled by spraying. To 
secure the required control it is necessary to know the exact 
time to apply the spray, and also it is absolutely necessary to 

44 apply the right kind of spray. Care in making up the spray 
mixture to the required standard is very essential in all spray- 
ing work. 

45 Machinery. — Spraying is a protection only in proportion as 
the object treated is thoroughly covered. It follows, there- 
fore, that suitable implements must be employed in doing the 
work. Within recent years there has been a great improve- 
ment in machinery for spraying, and it is now possible to get a 
machine that is adapted to any phase of the work. A hand 
pump, with a barrel to hold the liquid, mounted on wheels, will 
serve for a few trees if they are not large. A tank mounted 

46 on a wagon, and a hand pump will answer all purposes in an 
orchard not exceeding 8 or 10 acres. For orchards exceeding 
10 acres, especially where the trees are large, a machine oper- 

47 ated by a gasoline engine or some other source of power will be 
found advantageous. A type of sprayer that is proving quite 
popular is the compressed-air sprayer. The noticeable feature 
about this machine is the absence of the pump and the engine. 



11 

A strong steel cylinder holds the liquid, and the power is sup- View - 
plied in the form of compressed air from a connecting tank. 
To use this type of sprayer it is necessary to have a large gaso- 
line engine to operate a compressor, so that the compressed- 
air tanks may be recharged. Another type of sprayer is the 
dust sprayer, which is often used in districts where heavy 
vehicles can not be used and where water is scarce. The ma- 
chines are supplied with a fan arrangement which blows the 
material in the form of a fine dust that entirely covers the tree. 
The dust method is useful mainly in controlling certain insects. 
Fungus diseases do not yield satisfactorily to this method as 
a rule. 

Application. — In spraying it is necessary to have sufficient 
pressure and a suitable nozzle to break up the liquid into a fine 
mist and also force this mist over the entire surface of the 
object sprayed. In spraying for codling moth the spray must 
enter the calyx end of every little apple, and in spraying for San 
Jose scale every portion of the tree must be covered. Spraying 
is usually done with a pressure of at least 80 pounds, and in 
many cases this pressure reaches 150 pounds. It is very essen- 
tial also in spraying to have suitable nozzles, so that the clog- 
ging can be reduced to a minimum, and to have extension rods, 
so that all points of the larger trees can be easily reached. 

PROTECTION FROM RODENTS. 

Very frequently young trees are attacked by rabbits, mice, 

woodchucks, and the like, and very serious damage is done. 

If the trees are still vigorous and the wounds not too extensive, 

the trees may be saved by bridge grafting. When young 48 

trees are set in districts where such rodents are numerous, it 

is a good plan to use some form of a tree protector. These 4& 

protectors may be made of wood veneer, wire netting, lath, or 

tar paper. They should be set mto the earth several inches, 

and run up on the trunk to cover up to the base of the scaffold 

limbs. 

TRAPPING DEVICES. 

The codling moth is often trapped by using bands of burlap 
wrapped around the tree. The female insect crawls under this 
burlap to transform, and the bands may then be examined 
from time to time and the pupae killed. 50 

The cankerworm may also be trapped by using sticky bands 
hi place of the burlap. The females in crawling up the trunk 
of the tree become entangled in the sticky materials and are 
killed. Spraying is, however, the most satisfactory remedy 
for these two insects. 



12 

FIRE BLIGHT AND BORERS. 

view. There are several troubles with which the orchafdist has to 
contend that often become quite serious. These troubles are 
fire blight on apples and pears, yellows on peaches, and borers 
on peaches and apples. The only relief that can be had from 
fire blight is to cut out all infected branches as soon as observed. 
In cutting out these branches be sure to make the cut several 
inches below where the blight shows, and also gather up the 
cuttings and burn them. It is also essential to disinfect the 
pruning shears or knife in a solution of bichlorid of mercury or to 
treat the wound with the same solution. Soft and succulent 
wood growth seems to be more subject to attack, so where 
blight is prevalent the orchard should be seeded down and all 
nitrogenous fertilizers should be withheld. Peach yellows 
can only be checked by cutting out and burning all infected 
trees. 

Peach-tree borers are generally controlled by mounding the 
trees and digging out the borers. 

[The lecturer should always consult various publications for 
details on the different phases of orchard work. It is also 
advisable to obtain all publications that are available from the 
State experiment station and State department of agriculture 
of the particular State where the lecturer is working, for in this 
way he may obtain the best available information that is 
adaptable to his own region.] 



APPENDIX. 



LANTERN SLIDES. 

No. of 
view. 

1 . A deep porous soil. 

2. A shallow soil underlain with rock. 

Toor drainage is the result. 

3. An apple orchard showing the effect of atmospheric drainage. 

Trees in the background in bloom a week earlier than those in the hollow. 
1. An orchard with an elevation from 1,600 to 2,100 feet. 

| The trees on the upper side of the orchard are retarded several days in blooming and ripening 
by the influence of the elevation. 

5. Well-grow it 1-year-old apple trees. 

Very desirable for planting. 

6. Well-grown '2-year-old apple trees. 

7. Well-grown peach trees showing three different grades. 

The medium size is usually to be preferred. 

8. The proper way to plant a tree. 

Using a planting board and firming the soil about the roots. 

9. Peach trees of two different sizes pruned at time of planting. 

10. A disk harrow — an excellent tool for orchard work. 

11. Clean tillage in a cherry orchard. 

12. Clean tillage in an apple orchard. 

13. Sod mulch in an apple orchard. 

14. Grass in an apple orchard being pastured down by sheep. 

15. A peach orchard in which no system of tillage is practiced. 

16. Alfalfa as a cover crop in an apple orchard. 

17. Soy beans used as a cover crop in the orchard. 

18. Rye used as a cover crop in a peach orchard. 

19. A peach tree with a well-opened head. 

20. Apple trees so loaded with fruit that props are necessary to prevent the breaking 

down of the limbs. 

21. Peach trees which are 14 years old. 

Note how proper pruning has made the trees stocky and vigorous. 

22 . Lack of pruning on these peach trees has caused the bearing wood to be formed 

at the extremities of the branches. 

23. Improper pruning has produced a tree with all the bearing wood at the extremi- 

ties of the branches. 

24. The first season's growth of a peach tree after planting. 

25. An apple tree before and after being pruned to form the scaffold limbs. 

26. The same apple tree with the second season's growth. 
27.' The third season's growth on an apple tree. 

Note the open head. 

28. An upright-growing apple tree before and after pruning. 

Note how the branches are headed back and an open head formed. 

29. Large apple trees with the branches low and well distributed through the tree, 

30. A branch of Burbank plums. 

Note the heavy bearing nature and need for thinning. 

31. Boys thinning plums. 

32. Two branches of peaches from the same tree, showing the results of thinning. 

(13) 



14 

No. of 
view. 

33. High-headed apple trees that need to be deheaded. 

34. The same trees after being deheaded. 

35. A peach tree with the bearing wood at the extremities of the branches. ' 

36. The same tree after being cut back to a few short arms. 

37. One season's growth on a peach tree after being deheaded. 

38. Breaking up the sod in an old orchard. 

An important feature in renovation. 

39. The stump of an apple tree showing how few feeding roots are near the trunk 

of the tree. 
49. The same stump showing the area covered by the feeding roots of an apple tree. 

41. The result of leaf curl and scale injury in a peach orchard. 

42. 1.3 per cent wormy and 98.7 per cent sound fruits in 10 bushels of apples from 

a sprayed tree. 

43. Brown-rot damage on peaches from sprayed and unsprayed trees upon arrival 

on the market. 

44. A convenient apparatus for the proper preparation of spray mixtures. 

45. Cooking lime-sulphur spray mixture. 

46. A suitable spraying outfit for a small orchard. 

47. A power sprayer for use in large orchards. 

48. How a wound is repaired by bridge grafting. 

Note the wound, how the grafts are put on, and how the growth of the grafts in time covers the 
wound. 

49. Several kinds of tree protectors. 

59. An apple tree showing the use of carpet as a tree band. 

REFERENCES. 

1. The Principles of Fruit Growing. By L. II . Bailey. 

2. Productive Orcharding. By F. C. Sears. 

3. The Apple. By A. E. Wilkinson. 

4. Practical Orcharding on Rough Lands. By S. W. Moore. 

5. Fruit Growing in the Arid Regions. By W. Paddock and O. B. Whipple. 

6. The California Fruits and How to Grow Them. By E. J. Wickson. 

7. Plums and Plum Culture. By F. A. Waugh. 

8. The Pruning Book. By L. H. Bailey. 

9. The Apple and How to Grow It. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. No. 113. 

10. The Profitable Management of the Small Apple Orchard on the General Farm. 

U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. No. 491. 
Hi Growing Peaches: Sites, Propagation, Planting, Tillage, and Maintenance of Soil 

Fertility. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui". No. 631. 

12. Growing Peaches: Pruning, Renewal of Tops, Thinning, Interplanted Crops, and 

Special Practices. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. No. 632. 

13. The Pear and How to Grow It. U. S..Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. No. 482. 

14. Growing Fruit for Home Use in the Great Plains Area. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' 

Bui. No. 727. 

15. Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. No. 278. 

16. The Fertilization of Apple Orchards. Pennsylvania Station Bui. 121. 

17. The More Important Insect and Fungus Enemies of the Fruit and Foliage of the 

Apple. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. No. 492. 

18. Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown Rot, Scab, and Curculio. U. S. Dept. 

Agr. Farmers' Bui. No. 440. 

19. Spraying Machinery. Ohio Station Bui. 216. 

20. Pruning. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 181. 

21. Bridge Grafting. TJ. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul.»No. 710. 



15 

22. The Fertilization of Peach Orchards. West Virginia Station Bui. 150. 

23. Tillage and Sod Mulch in Apple Orchards. New York Station Buls. 314, 375, 383. 

24. Commercial Apple Growing. Indiana Station Circ. 30. 

25. Apple Growing in California. State Commission of Horticulture. 

26. Orchard Management. Oregon Station Bui. 111. 

27. Pruning. Oregon Station Bui. 130. 

28. Pruning Trees, Vines, and Shrubs. Nebraska Station Extension Bui. 29. 

29. Plums for Home and Market. Ohio Station Bui. 162. 

30. Apple Growing: Apple Industry, Renovation of Old Apple Orchards. Storrs 

Conn. Sta. Bui. 61. 

31. Apple Growing: Planting the Apple Orchard. Storrs Conn. Sta. Bui. 62. 

32. Apple Growing: Orchard Management. Storrs Conn. Sta. Bui. 66. 

33. Commercial Apple Culture in Mountain Regions. North Carolina Dept. of Agr. 

Vol. 29, No. 8. 

34. Irrigation of Orchards. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 404. 

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